EnglishII

Summarizing- captures the main points of a story or other text, boiling it down to a few words or sentences. You use your own words to briefly state the main ideas and key details of the text.

Identifying Supporting Details

Details support the primary message.
Details answer the questions: Who? What? When? Which? Why? and How?
Sensory details tell how something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or tastes.

http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/maplewoods/writeplace/PMEhandout.html

Review Part II

Literary elements are the essentials of a story: setting, characters, plot, and theme.

ELEMENTS OF PLOT

All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a structured format called PLOT.

Exposition
The introductory material which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters, and presents other facts necessary to understanding the story.

Foreshadowing
The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story.

Inciting Force
The event or character that triggers the conflict.

Conflict
The essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds. (Man versus…Man, Nature, Society, or Self)

Rising Action
A series of events that builds from the conflict. It begins with the inciting force and ends with the climax.

Climax
The climax is the result of the crisis. It is the high point of the story for the reader. Frequently, it is the moment of the highest interest and greatest emotion. The point at which the outcome of the conflict can be predicted.

Falling Action
The events after the climax which close the story.

Resolution (Denouement)
Rounds out and concludes the action.

http://www.learner.org/exhibits/literature/read/plot1.html (plot)

Setting- the time and place in which the events of a story occur. The setting can include not only the place, but the time of day, the season, and the culture of the time and place.

Historical context (what was happening in history at the time of the story) is a part of the setting, and helps us understand the story.
http://www.chipublib.org/003cpl/onebook/trials.html

CHARACTERIZATION

MAJOR CHARACTERS
Almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good and bad qualities. Their goals, ambitions and values change. A round character changes as a result of what happens to him or her. A character who changes inside as a result of what happens to him is referred to in literature as a DYNAMIC character. A dynamic character grows or progresses to a higher level of understanding in the course of the story.

Protagonist
The main character in the story

Antagonist
The character or force that opposes the protagonist.

Foil
A character who provides a contrast to the protagonist.

MINOR CHARACTERS
Almost always flat or two-dimensional characters. They have only one or two striking qualities. Their predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality. They are usually all good or all bad. Such characters can be interesting or amusing in their own right, but they lack depth. Flat characters are sometimes referred to as STATIC characters because they do not change in the course of the story.

POINT OF VIEW

First Person
The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and feelings and what he or she sees and is told by other characters. He can’t tell us thoughts of other characters.

Third-Person Objective
The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she sees and hears. This narrator can tell us what is happening, but he can’t tell us the thoughts of the characters.

Third-Person Limited
The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the characters.

Omniscient
The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one of the characters.

http://www.pammc.com/pov.htm (point of view)

Conflict-

Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds.

Man versus Man
Conflict that pits one person against another.

Man versus Nature
A run-in with the forces of nature. On the one hand, it expresses the insignificance of a single human life in the cosmic scheme of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of a person’s strength and will to live.

Man versus Society
The values and customs by which everyone else lives are being challenged. The character may come to an untimely end as a result of his or her own convictions. The character may, on the other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic point of view, or it may be decided that society was right after all.

Man versus Self
Internal conflict. Not all conflict involves other people. Sometimes people are their own worst enemies. An internal conflict is a good test of a character’s values. Does he give in to temptation or rise above it? Does he demand the most from himself or settle for something less? Does he even bother to struggle? The internal conflicts of a character and how they are resolved are good clues to the character’s inner strength.

Often, more than one kind of conflict is taking place at the same time. In every case, however, the existence of conflict enhances the reader’s understanding of a character and creates the suspense and interest that make you want to continue reading.

	Theme- the central message of a story or the insight about life that a writer wishes to convey to readers-
	. Themes are suggested through the characters. The main character usually illustrates the most important theme of the story. A good way to get at this theme is to ask yourself the question, what does the main character learn in the course of the story?
	(Read "Slug's Big Moment", Scieszka, and discuss theme) http://www.learner.org/exhibits/literature/read/theme1.html
	http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/patten/theme.html

Literary techniques are devices such as foreshadowing, flashback, allusion, and symbolism.

http://tv0.tripod.com/ (a visual review of several literary techniques)

Foreshadowing- details that hint at the action to come in a story

An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story. Not all foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue, description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characters.

Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds suspense by raising questions that encourage the reader to go on and find out more about the event that is being foreshadowed. Foreshadowing is also a means of making a narrative more believable by partially preparing the reader for events which are to follow.

Flashback- an interruption in the flow of a story to describe an event that took place at an earlier time.

http://tritt.wirefire.com/tip11.html (flashbacks and foreshadowing)

Allusion- a reference in a story to a literary or historical event, person, object, or idea with which the writer assumes the reader is familiar.

http://www.worsleyschool.net/socialarts/allusion/page (allusions)

Symbolism- the use of objects in a story to represent ideas or concepts, such as using a rose to stand for love

A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but suggests other meanings as well. Things, characters and actions can be symbols. Anything that suggests a meaning beyond the obvious.
Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the same thing to all readers.
For example: bright sunshine symbolizes goodness and water is a symbolic cleanser.

http://www.turnerlearning.com/tntlearning/animalfarm/afsymbol.html

http://members.aol.com/ZuniArt/symbolism.html

http://bau2.uibk.ac.at/sg/poe/works/poetry/raven.html

Raven- a symbol of never-ending sadness or death
Poe's chamber- a symbol of the emptiness, loneliness in his life
Bust of Pallas above the chamber door (goddess of wisdom)
Midnight and December symbolize the end of something

Mood- The overall feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for a reader.
Examples of mood: festive, melancholy, fanciful, imaginative, mournful, joyful, pensive, fearful...
The choice of setting, objects, details, images, and words all contribute towards creating a specific mood. For example, an author may create a mood of mystery around a character or setting but may treat that character or setting in an ironic, serious, or humorous tone

Tone: The author’s attitude, stated or implied, toward a subject. Some possible attitudes are pessimism, optimism, earnestness, seriousness, bitterness, humorous, and joyful. An author’s tone can be revealed through choice of words and details.

Irony- involves a difference between what appears to be and what really is.

Verbal irony- a character says the opposite of what he or she means.
http://tv0.tripod.com/verbal_irony.htm

Irony of situation- an event or situation turns out to different
from what the reader expects

Read "Just Add Water and Mix", from Spiders in the Hairdo, by Holt
Read "The Really Ugly Duckling", from Stinky Cheese Man, by Scieszka
Read "Hand, Foot and Tongue" and "Piece of Toast & Froot Loops", Scieszka

            Dramatic irony- there's a difference between what a character thinks
                                and what the reader knows to be true- Read "Termite, Ant
                                & Echidna", Scieszka

(Irony is a reminder from the author that life is unpredictable.)

	Dialogue- conversation between two or more characters
	Monologue- A long speech by one character
	Soliloquy- One character alone on stage, sharing thoughts/feelings
	Aside- A short speech, meant only for the audience's ears

Figurative Language/ Figures of Speech

Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else, you are using figurative language. Any language that goes beyond the literal meaning of words in order to furnish new effects or fresh insights into an idea or a subject. The most common figures of speech are simile, metaphor, and alliteration.

Metaphor- a comparison of two unlike things, saying or inferring that one thing is the other Example: The road was a ribbon of moonlight.

Simile- a comparison of two unlike things, using like or as Example: The muscles on his brawny arms are strong as iron bands.

Alliteration- Repeated consonant sounds occurring at the beginning of words or within words. Alliteration is used to create melody, establish mood, call attention to important words, and point out similarities and contrasts. Example: wide-eyed and wondering while we wait for others to waken.
(Read from "Purple Pelican")

Personification- when a non human object is given human characteristics - Read "Rock, Paper, Scissors", Scieszka
A figure of speech which gives the qualities of a person to an animal, an object, or an idea. It is a comparison which the author uses to show something in an entirely new light, to communicate a certain feeling or attitude towards it and to control the way a reader perceives it. Example: a brave handsome brute fell with a creaking rending cry--the author is giving a tree human qualities.

	Alliteration- Repeated consonant sounds occurring at the beginning of words or within words. Alliteration is used to create melody, establish mood, call attention to important words, and point out similarities and contrasts. Example: wide-eyed and wondering while we wait for others to waken.
	Hyperbole- An exaggerated statement used to heighten effect. It is not used to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point. Example: She’s said so on several million occasions

	Oxymoron- a pair of contradictory words
	http://www.ethanwiner.com/oxymoron.html (oxymorons)

	Pun- a play on words http://www.ahajokes.com/funny_puns.html
	http://www.lovetolearnplace.com/Curriculum/Literary/Pun.html#anchor596671

	Idiom- An expression that has a meaning apart from the meanings of its individual words. Example: The walls have ears. This idiom means others may be listening to a private conversation. A wall would not have ears all over its surface.
	http://www.lovetolearnplace.com/Curriculum/Literary/ClichesandIdioms.html

Part III

Text structures- organizational patterns which arrange an author's ideas and link his/her ideas.

Chronological order-events are related in the order in which they happened.

Compare-and-contrast- This involves describing how two or more events, places, characters, or other ideas are similar and .or different in several ways

Cause and effect-This may involve several reasons why an event occurred, or several effects from on cause, and of course, as single cause/effects situation.

Problem and solution-Authors use this technique to identify the problem, give possible solutions with possible results and finally, the solution that was chosen.

http://www.homepages.dsu.edu/venekaml/Lewis%20and%20Clark/EXPOSITORY%20TEXT%20STRUCTURES.htm

Making inferences, drawing conclusions, and making predictions

Analyzing across Texts

Identifying Author's Purpose

to entertain, to inform or explain, to express, to persuade

An author will emphasize order and precision when giving instructions, and
emphasize suspense when writing a mystery.

http://unx1.shsu.edu/~txcae/Powerpoints/prepostest/authorpovpostest.html (author purpose)

Credibility of Information Sources (Read "Frog's New Shoes", Scieszka)

Checking credibility

	What are the author's motives for writing?
	What is the author's attitude toward the subject?
	What is the author's point of view on the subject?
	Does the author support opinions with sound and credible evidence?
	How current is the information he or she provides?

Reliable sources

	.edu (education)
	.gov (government)
	.mil (military)

Modes of Persuasion

http://members.aol.com/MrDonnUnits/Propaganda.html (propaganda)

Persuasive writing appeals to a reader's logic:

	states an issue and the author's position
	gives opinions or claims that have supporting reasons or facts
	has a reasonable and respectful tone
	answers opposing views

Persuasive writing may use faulty reasoning:

	overgeneralization- based on too little evidence. Example: "Two girls at school wore bell-bottoms yesterday. these bell-bottom pants are the style of the season. Everyone's wearing them."
	circular reasoning- supports an opinion by repeating the opinion in different words. Example: "You should study hard because studying hard is something students should do."
	faulty cause and effect- reasoning suggests that A causes B because B happened after A. Example: "When we planted a flower garden in our yard, more cats began to visit. The cats must like the flowers."

Persuasive writing that appeals to a reader's emotions may try to convince the reader of an opinion based on:

	individual experience "Smoking is evil- it gave me cancer."
	universal experience- "Everybody knows that people don't watch the road while they talk on cell phones."

Persuasive writing that appeals to a reader's emotions can sometimes use faulty or deceptive techniques:

	loaded language- using words that have strong positive or negative connotations. "The recipes in this book are simply heaven."
	bandwagon appeal- urges readers to believe something because everybody else does. "All Westside voters support Proposition 3- you should too!"
	testimonials- famous people to endorse a product or idea. "Actor George Nelson wears Racers every day."

The purpose of media

	to entertain
	to inform
	to persuade

To determine purpose, ask:

	How is the message presented?
	Is the presenter an authority?
	what kind of language does the representation use?
	What are the underlying values of the presentation?
	What is the source of the information? Is it up-to-date?

Types of Propaganda

There are many techniques commonly used in the dissemination of propaganda. Use this handout to help you identify different types of propaganda throughout Cold War.

BANDWAGON: The basic idea behind the bandwagon approach is just that, "getting on the bandwagon." The propagandist puts forth the idea that everyone is doing this, or everyone supports this person/cause, so should you. The bandwagon approach appeals to the conformist in all of us: No one wants to be left out of what is perceived to be a popular trend.

EXAMPLE: Everyone in Lemmingtown is behind Jim Duffie for Mayor. Shouldn't you be part of this winning team?

TESTIMONIAL: This is the celebrity endorsement of a philosophy, movement or candidate. In advertising, for example, athletes are often paid millions of dollars to promote sports shoes, equipment and fast food. In political circles, movie stars, television stars, rock stars and athletes lend a great deal of credibility and power to a political cause or candidate. Just a photograph of a movie star at political rally can generate more interest in that issue/candidate or cause thousands, sometimes millions, of people to become supporters.

EXAMPLE: "Sam Slugger", a baseball Hall of Famer who led the pros in hitting for years, appears in a television ad supporting Mike Politico for U.S. Senate. Since Sam is well known and respected in his home state and nationally, he will likely gain Mr. Politico many votes just by his appearance with the candidate.

PLAIN FOLKS: Here the candidate or cause is identified with common people from everyday walks of life. The idea is to make the candidate/cause come off as grassroots and all-American.

EXAMPLE: After a morning speech to wealthy Democratic donors, Bill Clinton stops by McDonald's for a burger, fries, and photo-op.

TRANSFER: Transfer employs the use of symbols, quotes or the images of famous people to convey a message not necessarily associated with them. In the use of transfer, the candidate/speaker attempts to persuade us through the indirect use of something we respect, such as a patriotic or religious image, to promote his/her ideas. Religious and patriotic images may be the most commonly used in this propaganda technique but they are not alone. Sometimes even science becomes the means to transfer the message.

EXAMPLE: The environmentalist group PEOPLE PROMOTING PLANTS, in its attempt to prevent a highway from destroying the natural habitat of thousands of plant species, produces a television ad with a "scientist" in a white lab coat explaining the dramatic consequences of altering the food chain by destroying this habitat.

FEAR: This technique is very popular among political parties and PACs (Political Action Committees) in the U.S. The idea is to present a dreaded circumstance and usually follow it up with the kind of behavior needed to avoid that horrible event.

EXAMPLE: The Citizens for Retired Rights present a magazine ad showing an elderly couple living in poverty because their social security benefits have been drastically cut by the Republicans in Congress. The solution? The CRR urges you to vote for Democrats.

LOGICAL FALLACIES: Applying logic, one can usually draw a conclusion from one or more established premises. In the type of propaganda known as the logical fallacy, however, the premises may be accurate but the conclusion is not.

EXAMPLE:

	Premise 1: Bill Clinton supports gun control.
	Premise 2: Communist regimes have always supported gun control.
	Conclusion: Bill Clinton is a communist.

We can see in this example that the Conclusion is created by a twisting of logic, and is therefore a fallacy.

GLITTERING GENERALITIES: This approach is closely related to what is happening in TRANSFER (see above). Here, a generally accepted virtue is usually employed to stir up favorable emotions. The problem is that these words mean different things to different people and are often manipulated for the propagandists' use. The important thing to remember is that in this technique the propagandist uses these words in a positive sense. They often include words like: democracy, family values (when used positively), rights, civilization, even the word "American."

EXAMPLE: An ad by a cigarette manufacturer proclaims to smokers: Don't let them take your rights away! ("Rights" is a powerful word, something that stirs the emotions of many, but few on either side would agree on exactly what the 'rights' of smokers are.)

NAME-CALLING: This is the opposite of the GLITTERING GENERALITIES approach. Name-calling ties a person or cause to a largely perceived negative image.

EXAMPLE: In a campaign speech to a logging company, the Congressman referred to his environmentally conscious opponent as a "tree hugger."

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